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</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="padding-top:0.8em;">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="padding-bottom:0.5em;"><a href="Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="padding:0.5em 0.5em 0.5em; display:block; background-color: #efefef;">

<ul><li><a href="Outline_of_epistemology" title="Outline of epistemology">Outline</a></li>

<li>Category</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; text-align:center; font-size:100%;;color: var(--color-base);padding-top:0.5em;"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Schools</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.25em;">

<ul><li><a href="Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li>

<li><a href="Contextualism" title="Contextualism">Contextualism</a></li>

<li><a href="Dogmatism" class="mw-redirect" title="Dogmatism">Dogmatism</a></li>

<li><a href="Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li>

<li><a href="Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li>

<li><a href="Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li>

<li><a href="Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Infallibilism" title="Infallibilism">Infallibilism</a></li>

<li><a href="Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Naturalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Perspectivism" title="Perspectivism">Perspectivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li>

<li><a href="Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li>

<li><a href="Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li>

<li><a href="Structuralism_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Structuralism (philosophy of science)">Structuralism</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; text-align:center; font-size:100%;;color: var(--color-base);border-top:1px solid #A2A9B1; padding-top:0.5em;"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Concepts</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.25em;">

<ul><li><a href="Unity_of_knowledge_and_action" title="Unity of knowledge and action">Action</a></li>

<li><a href="Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li>

<li><a href="A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>A priori</i> and <i>a posteriori</i></a></li>

<li><a href="Belief" title="Belief">Belief</a></li>

<li><a href="Belief#Full_and_partial" title="Belief">Credence</a></li>

<li><a href="Certainty" title="Certainty">Certainty</a></li>

<li><a href="Experience" title="Experience">Experience</a></li>

<li><a href="Information" title="Information">Information</a></li>

<li><a href="Justification_(epistemology)" title="Justification (epistemology)">Justification</a></li>

<li><a href="Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Induction</a></li>

<li><a href="Knowledge" title="Knowledge">Knowledge</a></li>

<li><a href="Meaning_(philosophy)" title="Meaning (philosophy)">Meaning</a></li>

<li><a href="Rationality" title="Rationality">Rationality</a></li>

<li><a href="Reason" title="Reason">Reason</a></li>

<li><a href="Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li>

<li><a href="Wisdom" title="Wisdom">Wisdom</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; text-align:center; font-size:100%;;color: var(--color-base);border-top:1px solid #A2A9B1; padding-top:0.5em;"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Domains</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.25em;">

<ul><li><a href="Applied_epistemology" title="Applied epistemology">Applied epistemology</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_epistemology" title="Evolutionary epistemology">Evolutionary epistemology</a></li>

<li><a href="Formal_epistemology" title="Formal epistemology">Formal epistemology</a></li>

<li><a href="Historical_epistemology" class="mw-redirect" title="Historical epistemology">Historical epistemology</a></li>

<li><a href="Metaepistemology" title="Metaepistemology">Metaepistemology</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_epistemology" title="Social epistemology">Social epistemology</a></li>

<li><a href="Virtue_epistemology" title="Virtue epistemology">Virtue epistemology</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

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<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; text-align:center; font-size:100%;;color: var(--color-base);border-top:1px solid #A2A9B1; padding-top:0.5em;"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Epistemologists</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.25em;">

<ul><li><a href="Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li>

<li><a href="Sextus_Empiricus" title="Sextus Empiricus">Sextus Empiricus</a></li>

<li><a href="Edmund_Gettier" title="Edmund Gettier">Edmund Gettier</a></li>

<li><a href="Wang_Yangming" title="Wang Yangming">Wang Yangming</a></li>

<li><a href="Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li>

<li><a href="David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li>

<li><a href="Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li>

<li><a href="Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></li>

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<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; text-align:center; font-size:100%;;color: var(--color-base);border-top:1px solid #A2A9B1; padding-top:0.5em;"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Related fields</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.25em;">

<ul><li><a href="Epistemic_cognition" title="Epistemic cognition">Epistemic cognition</a></li>

<li><a href="Epistemic_modal_logic" title="Epistemic modal logic">Epistemic logic</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_perception" title="Philosophy of perception">Philosophy of perception</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

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<p><b>Infinitism</b> is the view that knowledge may be justified by an <a href="Infinity" title="Infinity">infinite</a> chain of reasons. It belongs to <a href="Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a>, the branch of <a href="Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a> that considers the possibility, nature, and means of <a href="Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Epistemological_infinitism">Epistemological infinitism</h2></div>

<p>Since <a href="Gettier_problem" title="Gettier problem">Gettier</a>, "knowledge" is no longer widely accepted as meaning "<a href="Justified_true_belief" class="mw-redirect" title="Justified true belief">justified true belief</a>" only.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, some epistemologists still consider knowledge to have a justification condition. Traditional theories of justification (<a href="Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">foundationalism</a> and <a href="Coherentism" title="Coherentism">coherentism</a>) and indeed some philosophers consider an infinite regress not to be a valid justification. In their view, if <i>A</i> is justified by <i>B</i>, <i>B</i> by <i>C</i>, and so forth, then either

</p>

<ol><li>The chain must end with a link that requires no independent justification (a foundation),</li>

<li>The chain must come around in a circle in some finite number of steps (the belief may be justified by its coherence), or</li>

<li>Our beliefs must not be justified after all (as is posited by <a href="Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">philosophical skeptics</a>).</li></ol>

<p>Infinitism, the view, for example, of <a href="Peter_D._Klein" title="Peter D. Klein">Peter D. Klein</a>, challenges this consensus, referring back to work of <a href="Paul_Moser" title="Paul Moser">Paul Moser</a> (1984) and <a href="John_Post" title="John Post">John Post</a> (1987).<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this view, the evidential ancestry of a justified belief must be infinite and non-repeating, which follows from the conjunction of two principles that Klein sees as having straightforward intuitive appeal: "The Principle of Avoiding Circularity" and "The Principle of Avoiding Arbitrariness."

</p><p>The Principle of Avoiding Circularity (PAC) is stated as follows: "For all x, if a person, S, has a justification for x, then for all y, if y is in the evidential ancestry of x for S, then x is not in the evidential ancestry of y for S."<sup id="cite_ref-PhPers13_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PhPers13-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> PAC says that the proposition to be justified cannot be a member of its own evidential ancestry, which is violated by coherence theories of justification.

</p><p>The Principle of Avoiding Arbitrariness (PAA) is stated as follows: "For all x, if a person, S, has a justification for x, then there is some reason, r1, available to S for x; and there is some reason, r2, available to S for r1; etc."<sup id="cite_ref-PhPers13_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PhPers13-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> PAA says that in order to avoid arbitrariness, for any proposition <i>x</i> to be justified for an epistemological agent, there must be some reason <i>r</i> available to the agent; this reason will in turn require the same structure of justification, and so on <i>ad infinitum</i>. Foundationalist theories can only avoid arbitrariness by claiming that some propositions are self-justified. But if a proposition is its own justification (e.g. coherentism), then it is a member of its own evidential ancestry, and the structure of justification is circular.

</p><p>In this view, the conjunction of both PAC and PAA leaves infinitism as the only alternative to skepticism.<sup id="cite_ref-PhPers13_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PhPers13-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The Availability of Reasons: Klein also relies on the notion of "availability". In other words, a reason must be available to the subject in order for it to be a candidate for justification. There are two conditions that need to be satisfied in order for a reason to be available: objectively and subjectively.

</p><p>An objectively available reason is stated as follows: "a belief, r, is objectively available to S as a reason for p if <b>(1)</b> r has some sufficiently high probability and the conditional probability of p given r is sufficiently high; or <b>(2)</b> an impartial, informed observer would accept r as a reason for p; or <b>(3)</b> r would be accepted in the long run by an appropriately defined set of people; or <b>(4)</b> r is evident for S and r makes p evident for S; or <b>(5)</b> r accords with S's deepest epistemic commitments; or <b>(6)</b> r meets the appropriate conversational presuppositions; or <b>(7)</b> an intellectually virtuous person would advance r as a reason for p."<sup id="cite_ref-PhPers13_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PhPers13-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Any of these conditions are sufficient to describe objectively available reasons and are compatible with infinitism. Klein concedes that, ultimately, the proper characterization of objectively available need be a member of this list, but, for the scope of Klein's defense of infinitism, he need not provide a fully developed account of objectively available reasons. Objective availability could be best understood, at least as a working definition, as an existing, truth-apt reason not dependent on the subject.

</p><p>A subjectively available reason is stated as follows: "S must be able to call on r." (Subjectively available is comparatively straightforward compared to objectively available.) The subject must be able to evoke the reason in their own mind and use the reason in the process of justification. In essence, the reason must be "properly hooked up with S's own beliefs" in order to be subjectively available.

</p><p>A reason that is both objectively and subjectively available to a subject is a candidate for justification according to infinitism (or, at least for Klein).<sup id="cite_ref-PhPers13_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PhPers13-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Objection to Infinitism: Klein addresses an objection to infinitism.

</p><p>The finite mind objection (attributed to John Williams): The human mind is finite and has a limited capacity. "It is impossible to consciously believe an infinite number of propositions (because to believe something takes some time) and it is impossible to "unconsciously believe"...an infinite number of propositions because the candidate beliefs are such that some of them "defeat human understanding."<sup id="cite_ref-PhPers13_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PhPers13-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is simply an impossibility that a subject has an infinite chain of reasons which justify their beliefs because the human mind is finite. Klein concedes that the human mind is finite and cannot contain an infinite number of reasons, but the infinitist, according to Klein, is not committed to a subject actually possessing infinite reasons. "The infinitist is not claiming that in any finite period of time...we can consciously entertain an infinite number of thoughts. It is rather that there are an infinite number of propositions such that each one of them would be consciously thought were the appropriate circumstances to arise."<sup id="cite_ref-PhPers13_3-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PhPers13-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> So, an infinite chain of reasons need not be present in the mind in order for a belief to be justified rather it must merely be possible to provide an infinite chain of reasons. There will always be another reason to justify the preceding reason if the subject felt compelled to make the inquiry and had subjective access to that reason.

</p>

<ul><li><a href="Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li>

<li><a href="Finitism" title="Finitism">Finitism</a></li>

<li><a href="Perspectivism" title="Perspectivism">Perspectivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Regress_argument" class="mw-redirect" title="Regress argument">Regress argument</a></li>

<li><a href="Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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</style><cite id="CITEREFIchikawaSteup2017" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Ichikawa, Jonathan Jenkins; Steup, Matthias (2017-03-17). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/knowledge-analysis/">"The Analysis of Knowledge"</a>. In <a href="Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <i><a href="Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i> (Fall 2017 ed.).</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFKleinTurri" class="citation web cs1">Klein, Peter D.; Turri, John. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/inf-epis/#H2">"Infinitism in Epistemology"</a>. <i>Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-06-19</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-PhPers13-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-PhPers13_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PhPers13_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PhPers13_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PhPers13_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PhPers13_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PhPers13_3-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PhPers13_3-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFKlein1999" class="citation journal cs1">Klein, Peter D. (1999). "Human Knowledge and the Infinite Regress of Reasons". <i>Philosophical Perspectives</i>. <b>13</b>: <span class="nowrap">297–</span>325.</cite></span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/browse/infinitism">Infinitism</a> at <a href="PhilPapers" title="PhilPapers">PhilPapers</a></li>

<li><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iep.utm.edu/inf-epis">"Infinitism in Epistemology"</a>. <i><a href="Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite></li></ul>

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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Infinity_(∞)149" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Infinity_(∞)149" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Infinity" title="Infinity">Infinity</a> (<span class="texhtml"><a href="Infinity_symbol" title="Infinity symbol">∞</a></span>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Ananta_(infinite)" title="Ananta (infinite)">Ananta (infinite)</a></li>

<li><a href="Apeiron" title="Apeiron">Apeiron</a></li>

<li><a href="Controversy_over_Cantor's_theory" title="Controversy over Cantor's theory">Controversy over Cantor's theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Galileo's_paradox" title="Galileo's paradox">Galileo's paradox</a></li>

<li><a href="Hilbert's_paradox_of_the_Grand_Hotel" title="Hilbert's paradox of the Grand Hotel">Hilbert's paradox of the Grand Hotel</a></li>

<li><a href="Infinity_(philosophy)" title="Infinity (philosophy)">Infinity (philosophy)</a></li>

<li><a href="Paradoxes_of_infinity" class="mw-redirect" title="Paradoxes of infinity">Paradoxes of infinity</a></li>

<li><a href="Paradoxes_of_set_theory" title="Paradoxes of set theory">Paradoxes of set theory</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Branches of mathematics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Complex_analysis" title="Complex analysis">Complex analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Internal_set_theory" title="Internal set theory">Internal set theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Nonstandard_analysis" title="Nonstandard analysis">Nonstandard analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Set_theory" title="Set theory">Set theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Synthetic_differential_geometry" title="Synthetic differential geometry">Synthetic differential geometry</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Formalizations of infinity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Absolute_infinite" title="Absolute infinite">Absolute infinite</a></li>

<li><a href="Actual_infinity" class="mw-redirect" title="Actual infinity">Actual infinity</a></li>

<li><a href="Aleph_number" title="Aleph number">Aleph number</a></li>

<li><a href="Beth_number" title="Beth number">Beth number</a></li>

<li><a href="Cardinal_number" title="Cardinal number">Cardinal numbers</a></li>

<li><a href="Cardinality_of_the_continuum" title="Cardinality of the continuum">Cardinality of the continuum</a></li>

<li><a href="Dedekind-infinite_set" title="Dedekind-infinite set">Dedekind-infinite set</a></li>

<li><a href="Division_by_zero" title="Division by zero">Division by zero</a> (Complex infinity)</li>

<li><a href="Epsilon_number" title="Epsilon number">Epsilon number</a></li>

<li><a href="Gimel_function" title="Gimel function">Gimel function</a></li>

<li><a href="Hilbert_space" title="Hilbert space">Hilbert space</a></li>

<li><a href="Hyperreal_number" title="Hyperreal number">Hyperreal numbers</a></li>

<li><a href="Infinite_set" title="Infinite set">Infinite set</a></li>

<li><a href="Infinitesimal" title="Infinitesimal">Infinitesimal</a></li>

<li><a href="Ordinal_number" title="Ordinal number">Ordinal numbers</a></li>

<li><a href="Point_at_infinity" title="Point at infinity">Point at infinity</a></li>

<li><a href="Regular_cardinal" title="Regular cardinal">Regular cardinal</a></li>

<li><a href="Sphere_at_infinity" class="mw-redirect" title="Sphere at infinity">Sphere at infinity</a> (Kleinian group)</li>

<li><a href="Supertask" title="Supertask">Supertask</a></li>

<li><a href="Surreal_number" title="Surreal number">Surreal numbers</a></li>

<li><a href="Transfinite_number" title="Transfinite number">Transfinite numbers</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Geometries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Differential_geometry_of_surfaces" title="Differential geometry of surfaces">Differential geometry of surfaces</a></li>

<li><a href="M%C3%B6bius_plane" title="Möbius plane">Möbius plane</a></li>

<li><a href="M%C3%B6bius_transformation" title="Möbius transformation">Möbius transformation</a></li>

<li><a href="Riemannian_manifold" title="Riemannian manifold">Riemannian manifold</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mathematicians</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Georg_Cantor" title="Georg Cantor">Georg Cantor</a></li>

<li><a href="David_Hilbert" title="David Hilbert">David Hilbert</a></li>

<li><a href="Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a></li>

<li><a href="August_Ferdinand_M%C3%B6bius" title="August Ferdinand Möbius">August Ferdinand Möbius</a></li>

<li><a href="Bernhard_Riemann" title="Bernhard Riemann">Bernhard Riemann</a></li>

<li><a href="Abraham_Robinson" title="Abraham Robinson">Abraham Robinson</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Epistemology722" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Epistemology722" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="List_of_epistemologists" title="List of epistemologists">Epistemologists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="William_Alston" title="William Alston">William Alston</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_Audi" title="Robert Audi">Robert Audi</a></li>

<li><a href="Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li>

<li><a href="George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George Berkeley</a></li>

<li><a href="Laurence_BonJour" title="Laurence BonJour">Laurence BonJour</a></li>

<li><a href="Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Gilles Deleuze</a></li>

<li><a href="Keith_DeRose" title="Keith DeRose">Keith DeRose</a></li>

<li><a href="Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a></li>

<li><a href="Fred_Dretske" title="Fred Dretske">Fred Dretske</a></li>

<li><a href="Edmund_Gettier" title="Edmund Gettier">Edmund Gettier</a></li>

<li><a href="Alvin_Goldman" title="Alvin Goldman">Alvin Goldman</a></li>

<li><a href="Nelson_Goodman" title="Nelson Goodman">Nelson Goodman</a></li>

<li><a href="Paul_Grice" title="Paul Grice">Paul Grice</a></li>

<li><a href="Anil_Gupta_(philosopher)" title="Anil Gupta (philosopher)">Anil Gupta</a></li>

<li><a href="Susan_Haack" title="Susan Haack">Susan Haack</a></li>

<li><a href="David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li>

<li><a href="Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li>

<li><a href="S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a></li>

<li><a href="Peter_D._Klein" title="Peter D. Klein">Peter Klein</a></li>

<li><a href="Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Saul Kripke</a></li>

<li><a href="Hilary_Kornblith" title="Hilary Kornblith">Hilary Kornblith</a></li>

<li><a href="David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">David Lewis</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a></li>

<li><a href="G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a></li>

<li><a href="John_McDowell" title="John McDowell">John McDowell</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Robert Nozick</a></li>

<li><a href="Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a></li>

<li><a href="Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li>

<li><a href="Duncan_Pritchard" title="Duncan Pritchard">Duncan Pritchard</a></li>

<li><a href="James_Pryor" title="James Pryor">James Pryor</a></li>

<li><a href="Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a></li>

<li><a href="Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Thomas Reid</a></li>

<li><a href="Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li>

<li><a href="Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Gilbert Ryle</a></li>

<li><a href="Wilfrid_Sellars" title="Wilfrid Sellars">Wilfrid Sellars</a></li>

<li><a href="Susanna_Siegel" title="Susanna Siegel">Susanna Siegel</a></li>

<li><a href="Ernest_Sosa" title="Ernest Sosa">Ernest Sosa</a></li>

<li><a href="P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">P. F. Strawson</a></li>

<li><a href="Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li>

<li><a href="Timothy_Williamson" title="Timothy Williamson">Timothy Williamson</a></li>

<li><a href="Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a></li>

<li><a href="Nicholas_Wolterstorff" title="Nicholas Wolterstorff">Nicholas Wolterstorff</a></li>

<li><a href="Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li>

<li><a href="Constructivist_epistemology" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Contextualism" title="Contextualism">Contextualism</a></li>

<li><a href="Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_epistemology" title="Evolutionary epistemology">Evolutionary epistemology</a></li>

<li><a href="Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminist_epistemology" title="Feminist epistemology">Feminist epistemology</a></li>

<li><a href="Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li>

<li><a href="Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantic_holism" title="Semantic holism">Holism</a></li>

<li><a href="Innatism" title="Innatism">Innatism</a></li>

<li><a href="Na%C3%AFve_realism" title="Naïve realism">Naïve realism</a></li>

<li><a href="Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Naturalized epistemology</a></li>

<li><a href="Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li>

<li><a href="Reliabilism" title="Reliabilism">Reliabilism</a></li>

<li><a href="Direct_and_indirect_realism" title="Direct and indirect realism">Representational realism</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li>

<li><a href="Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental idealism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>A priori</i> knowledge</a></li>

<li><a href="A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>A posteriori</i> knowledge</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophical_analysis" title="Philosophical analysis">Analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li>

<li><a href="Belief" title="Belief">Belief</a></li>

<li><a href="Certainty" title="Certainty">Certainty</a></li>

<li><a href="Common_sense" title="Common sense">Common sense</a></li>

<li><a href="Descriptive_knowledge" class="mw-redirect" title="Descriptive knowledge">Descriptive knowledge</a></li>

<li><a href="Exploratory_thought" title="Exploratory thought">Exploratory thought</a></li>

<li><a href="Epistemic_injustice" title="Epistemic injustice">Epistemic injustice</a></li>

<li><a href="Epistemic_virtue" title="Epistemic virtue">Epistemic virtue</a></li>

<li><a href="Gettier_problem" title="Gettier problem">Gettier problem</a></li>

<li><a href="Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Induction</a></li>

<li><a href="Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Justification_(epistemology)" title="Justification (epistemology)">Justification</a></li>

<li><a href="Knowledge" title="Knowledge">Knowledge</a></li>

<li><a href="Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li>

<li><a href="Privileged_access" class="mw-redirect" title="Privileged access">Privileged access</a></li>

<li><a href="Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li>

<li><a href="Problem_of_other_minds" title="Problem of other minds">Problem of other minds</a></li>

<li><a href="Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li>

<li><a href="Procedural_knowledge" title="Procedural knowledge">Procedural knowledge</a></li>

<li><a href="Proposition" title="Proposition">Proposition</a></li>

<li><a href="Regress_argument" class="mw-redirect" title="Regress argument">Regress argument</a></li>

<li><a href="Simplicity" title="Simplicity">Simplicity</a></li>

<li><a href="Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li>

<li><a href="Uncertainty" title="Uncertainty">Uncertainty</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li>

<li><a href="Formal_epistemology" title="Formal epistemology">Formal epistemology</a></li>

<li><a href="Metaepistemology" title="Metaepistemology">Metaepistemology</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_perception" title="Philosophy of perception">Philosophy of perception</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_epistemology" title="Social epistemology">Social epistemology</a></li>

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<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy_of_science517" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Philosophy_of_science517" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Philosophical_analysis" title="Philosophical analysis">Analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li>

<li><a href="A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>A priori</i> and <i>a posteriori</i></a></li>

<li><a href="Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a>

<ul><li><a href="Mill's_Methods" class="mw-redirect" title="Mill's Methods">Mill's Methods</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Commensurability_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Commensurability (philosophy of science)">Commensurability</a></li>

<li><a href="Consilience" title="Consilience">Consilience</a></li>

<li><a href="Construct_(philosophy)" title="Construct (philosophy)">Construct</a></li>

<li><a href="Correlation" title="Correlation">Correlation</a>

<ul><li><a href="Correlation_function" title="Correlation function">function</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Creative_synthesis" title="Creative synthesis">Creative synthesis</a></li>

<li><a href="Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation problem</a></li>

<li><a href="Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">Empirical evidence</a></li>

<li><a href="Experiment" title="Experiment">Experiment</a>

<ul><li><a href="Design_of_experiments" title="Design of experiments">design</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Explanatory_power" title="Explanatory power">Explanatory power</a></li>

<li><a href="Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsifiability</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminist_method" title="Feminist method">Feminist method</a></li>

<li><a href="Functional_contextualism" title="Functional contextualism">Functional contextualism</a></li>

<li><a href="Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">Hypothesis</a>

<ul><li><a href="Alternative_hypothesis" title="Alternative hypothesis">alternative</a></li>

<li><i><a href="Ignoramus_et_ignorabimus" title="Ignoramus et ignorabimus">Ignoramus et ignorabimus</a></i></li>

<li><a href="Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Inductive reasoning</a></li>

<li><a href="Intertheoretic_reduction" title="Intertheoretic reduction">Intertheoretic reduction</a></li>

<li><a href="Inquiry" title="Inquiry">Inquiry</a></li>

<li><a href="Measurement" title="Measurement">Measurement</a></li>

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<li><a href="Paradigm" title="Paradigm">Paradigm</a></li>

<li><a href="Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_evidence" title="Scientific evidence">Scientific evidence</a>

<ul><li><a href="Evidence-based_practice" title="Evidence-based practice">Evidence-based practice</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_law" title="Scientific law">Scientific law</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_pluralism" title="Scientific pluralism">Scientific pluralism</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Testability" title="Testability">Testability</a></li>

<li><a href="Theory" title="Theory">Theory</a>

<ul><li><a href="Theory_choice" title="Theory choice">choice</a></li>

<li><a href="Theory-ladenness" title="Theory-ladenness">ladenness</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory">scientific</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Underdetermination" title="Underdetermination">Underdetermination</a></li>

<li><a href="Unity_of_science" title="Unity of science">Unity of science</a></li>

<li><a href="Variable_and_attribute_(research)" title="Variable and attribute (research)">Variable</a>

<ul><li><a href="Control_variable" title="Control variable">control</a></li>

<li><a href="Dependent_and_independent_variables" title="Dependent and independent variables">dependent and independent</a></li></ul></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li>

<li><a href="Confirmation_holism" title="Confirmation holism">Confirmation holism</a></li>

<li><a href="Constructive_empiricism" title="Constructive empiricism">Constructive empiricism</a></li>

<li><a href="Constructive_realism" title="Constructive realism">Constructive realism</a></li>

<li><a href="Constructivist_epistemology" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivist epistemology</a></li>

<li><a href="Contextualism" title="Contextualism">Contextualism</a></li>

<li><a href="Conventionalism" title="Conventionalism">Conventionalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Deductive-nomological_model" title="Deductive-nomological model">Deductive-nomological model</a></li>

<li><a href="Epistemological_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemological anarchism">Epistemological anarchism</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionism" title="Evolutionism">Evolutionism</a></li>

<li><a href="Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li>

<li><a href="Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Hypothetico-deductive_model" title="Hypothetico-deductive model">Hypothetico-deductive model</a></li>

<li><a href="Inductionism" title="Inductionism">Inductionism</a></li>

<li><a href="Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">Instrumentalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Model-dependent_realism" title="Model-dependent realism">Model-dependent realism</a></li>

<li><a href="Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a> / <a href="Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a> / <a href="Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li>

<li><a href="Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li>

<li><a href="Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a> / <a href="Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li>

<li><a href="Received_view_of_theories" title="Received view of theories">Received view</a> / <a href="Semantic_view_of_theories" title="Semantic view of theories">Semantic view of theories</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_essentialism" title="Scientific essentialism">Scientific essentialism</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_formalism" title="Scientific formalism">Scientific formalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a> / <a href="Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li>

<li><a href="Structuralism_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Structuralism (philosophy of science)">Structuralism</a></li>

<li><a href="Uniformitarianism" title="Uniformitarianism">Uniformitarianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verificationism</a></li>

<li><a href="Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Vitalism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophy of...</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Philosophy_of_biology" title="Philosophy of biology">Biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_chemistry" title="Philosophy of chemistry">Chemistry</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_physics" title="Philosophy of physics">Physics</a>

<ul><li><a href="Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Space and time</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Social science</a>

<ul><li><a href="Philosophy_of_archaeology" title="Philosophy of archaeology">Archaeology</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of economics">Economics</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_geography" title="Philosophy of geography">Geography</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">History</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_linguistics" title="Philosophy of linguistics">Linguistics</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Psychology</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li>

<li><a href="Descriptive_research" title="Descriptive research">Descriptive science</a></li>

<li><a href="Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li>

<li><a href="Exact_sciences" title="Exact sciences">Exact sciences</a></li>

<li><a href="Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li>

<li><a href="Hard_and_soft_science" title="Hard and soft science">Hard and soft science</a></li>

<li><a href="History_and_philosophy_of_science" title="History and philosophy of science">History and philosophy of science</a></li>

<li><a href="Non-science" title="Non-science">Non-science</a>

<ul><li><a href="Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Normative_science" title="Normative science">Normative science</a></li>

<li><a href="Protoscience" title="Protoscience">Protoscience</a></li>

<li><a href="Questionable_cause" title="Questionable cause">Questionable cause</a></li>

<li><a href="Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li>

<li><a href="Rhetoric_of_science" title="Rhetoric of science">Rhetoric of science</a></li>

<li><a href="Science_studies" title="Science studies">Science studies</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_scientific_ignorance" title="Sociology of scientific ignorance">Sociology of scientific ignorance</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">Sociology of scientific knowledge</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="List_of_philosophers_of_science" title="List of philosophers of science">Philosophers of science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Precursors10" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Precursors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a></li>

<li><a href="Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a></li>

<li><a href="Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a></li>

<li><a href="Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a></li>

<li><a href="David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>

<ul><li><a href="Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a></li>

<li><a href="Henri_Poincar%C3%A9" title="Henri Poincaré">Henri Poincaré</a></li>

<li><a href="Pierre_Duhem" title="Pierre Duhem">Pierre Duhem</a></li>

<li><a href="Rudolf_Steiner" title="Rudolf Steiner">Rudolf Steiner</a></li>

<li><a href="Karl_Pearson" title="Karl Pearson">Karl Pearson</a></li>

<li><a href="Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a></li>

<li><a href="Wilhelm_Windelband" title="Wilhelm Windelband">Wilhelm Windelband</a></li>

<li><a href="Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred North Whitehead</a></li>

<li><a href="Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li>

<li><a href="Otto_Neurath" title="Otto Neurath">Otto Neurath</a></li>

<li><a href="C._D._Broad" title="C. D. Broad">C. D. Broad</a></li>

<li><a href="Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi">Michael Polanyi</a></li>

<li><a href="Hans_Reichenbach" title="Hans Reichenbach">Hans Reichenbach</a></li>

<li><a href="Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</a></li>

<li><a href="Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a></li>

<li><a href="Carl_Gustav_Hempel" title="Carl Gustav Hempel">Carl Gustav Hempel</a></li>

<li><a href="Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a></li>

<li><a href="Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos">Imre Lakatos</a></li>

<li><a href="Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Paul Feyerabend</a></li>

<li><a href="Ian_Hacking" title="Ian Hacking">Ian Hacking</a></li>

<li><a href="Bas_van_Fraassen" title="Bas van Fraassen">Bas van Fraassen</a></li>

<li><a href="Larry_Laudan" title="Larry Laudan">Larry Laudan</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

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